Euthanasia Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Euthanasia - Research Paper Example Despite the fact that in some countries it is permitted, there is still no consensus on the matter in the world. Unfortunately, even given the high level of its achievements under the influence of scientific and technological progress, modern medicine cannot save mankind from death and physical suffering. The fact that the issue of euthanasia is particularly important in modern medicine is also associated with a departure from the principle of medical paternalism to the principles determined by contemporary bioethics. To begin with, for centuries, medical ethics had changed markedly. Previously medicine relied on Hippocratic Oath, the basic principle of which is as follows: â€Å"do whatever you like, but do no harm† (Hulkower 41). The ethics of Hippocratic medicine was an example of paternalism where the doctor was endowed with limitless powers in relation to the patient (McClenaghan 10). Today, medical ethics is based on four ethical principles that demonstrate a departure from medical paternalism. None of them is leading, since they are all equivalent (Varelius 377-380): Translated from the Greek the word "euthanasia" means a "good death." (Ardelt 424) The term appeared in the 16th century. The English philosopher and scientist Francis Bacon identified the following main features of euthanasia: easy and painless dying and a strong belief that to die is the greater good than to feel pain and sufferings in life. Francis Bacon believed that the doctor should help the dying patients, so they were not so scary. He "discussed euthanasia as a fair, easy passage" (Pridgeon 49). After almost three hundred years, a modern meaning of the term had appeared. Euthanasia began to be understood as an attempt to help person experiencing unbearable suffering escape from life that is to show compassion towards him or her. Shortly after, the term was forgotten, and at the end of the twentieth century, the issue of euthanasia became rather disputable. There is a

Henchard and farfrae contrast

Henchard and farfrae contrast Henchard and Farfrae contrast each other, both by the states of their characters, and by the ideas they evoke. Farfrae is testament to the power of modernity and change and, in Casterbridge, an actual impetus of it. He implements new farming and harvesting techniques. Henchard, however, is representative of tradition and unprogressive stability; while Henchard is Mayor the town merely survives, while under Farfrae it flourishes. Unlike the contrast that is presented between Henchard and Farfrae, Henchard and Lucetta are presented as compliments. They are very much alike: inclined to strong, irrational passions, characterized by willful, independent natures, and compelled by love as well as ambition. However, Lucetta is not a woman of character. Unlike Henchard, Lucettas primarily obligation is to her own happiness, whereas Henchards is to a higher sense of interpersonal responsibility and the moral amendment of past mistakes. This commitment to the right-course is what both compels Henchard to improve his moral and material condition and what prevents him from taking possession of his happiness. Farfrae and Elizabeth-Jane are also presented as compliments to each other. They are both emotionally moderate, not excited into extremes of emotion the way that Henchard and Lucetta are (although Farfraes infatuation for Lucetta was rather impulsive). I think that Elizabeth-Jane is truly the most admirable character in the book. She seems to have a subtle, unobtrusive beauty and reserved manner that I find more compelling than Lucettas sophisticated prettiness and flirtatious demeanor. Lucetta is not a deep or especially intelligent woman; we get the sense that Elizabeth-Jane is very much is both of those things. She is kind, compassionate, empathetic and beautiful; yet she is not, however, a one-dimensional doormat the way Tamsin is in The Return of the Native. Although Farfrae and Elizabeth-Jane are presented as similar characters, I think Elizabeth-Jane is still more admirable. Farfrae is ambitious, smart, successful, and very kind, yet Elizabeth-Jane seems to exude a greater deg ree of profound empathy, perhaps because she has suffered so much herself. The tone of this novel is both very much like Hardys other novels and somewhat different. There is a strong sense of determinism in the novel; I sense that the lives of these characters are almost predestined- their life-courses are inevitable, it is only the emotions that they feel that are subject to the change. I think that Hardy suggests that the natural world, fate, time, and chance are not antagonist to human life, but rather somewhat indifferent to it- for individual people are so inconsequential amidst the greater profundity of Life itself. This gives the book a somewhat melancholy, but not necessary pessimistic tone. Ultimately, Hardy suggests that the novel is like life itself: ambiguous, neither good nor bad, triumphant or self-defeating.

The Great Gatsby :: essays research papers

The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald is more than a story about a mans love for a women, but rather a mans will to achieve greatness as he perceived. Jay Gatsby was a man driven by money and power. He was a man with a vision, a vision to succeed in life. As a child, Jay Gatsby grew up on a farm. He saw his parents as nothing but lethargic farmers. Gatsby knew exactly what he didn’t want to be and that was like his parents. They were people who were content with who they were. Gatsby, on the other hand, was the exact opposite. He wanted to move on. Jay Gatsby wanted to be someone special, someone with prestige and someone definitely with money. Gatsby developed a self improvement plan to help him flourish as a young man. His plan detailed dumbbell exercises, studying electricity, practicing elocution and studying needed inventions. Even his parents knew he was driven. His father said: "Jimmy was bound to get ahead.. He always had some resolve like this or something. Do you notice what he’s got about improving his mind? He was always great for that" (182). The structured drive let Gatsby prevail in his endeavors. However, there are some things people just can’t get away from. James Gatsby desperately wanted to achieve success in life. However, it is difficult to flourish with a background like Gatsby’s. So to escape his past, he changed his name at the age of 17 from James Gats to Jay Gatsby. Nonetheless, changing his name only did so much for him. Gatsby ended up living a life of lies because of his hidden identity. Nobody really knew Gatsby. So in the absence of peoples knowledge, they conjured up rumors. "One time he killed a man who found out he was a nephew of von Hindenburg and second to the devil"(65). These were just some of the rumors about Gatsby. Some believed he was a German spy, while others thought he was a war hero. These were things he had to go through to reach his ultimate goal in life, which was to succeed. After he left the farm, Gatsby went to work for a man named Dan Cody. Cody was a stable father figure for Gatsby. He looked up to Dan and saw what he really wanted to be. "That’s Dan Cody, old sport.

Spirit Bound Chapter Seven

â€Å"NOT WITH YOUR TEETH,† I added hastily. â€Å"Throw yourself at me. Swing your shackles. Whatever you can do.† Victor Dashkov was not a stupid man. Others might have hesitated or asked more questions. He did not. He might not know exactly what was going on, but he sensed that this was a shot at freedom. Possibly the only one he'd ever get. He was someone who had spent a large part of his life masterminding complicated plots, so he was a pro at slipping right into them. Holding his hands up as much as he could manage, he lunged at me, making a good show of trying to choke me with the chain between his cuffs. As he did, I gave a bloodcurdling shriek. In an instant, the guardians were there to stop this crazy prisoner who was senselessly attacking a poor girl. But as they reached to subdue him, I leapt up and attacked them. Even if they'd expected me to be dangerous–and they hadn't–I had so much surprise on them that they had no time to react. I almost felt bad at how unfair it was to them. I punched the first hard enough that he lost his grip on Victor and flew backward, hitting the wall near Lissa as she frantically compelled Northwood to stay calm and not call anyone in the midst of this chaos. The other guardian had slightly more time to react, but he was still slow in letting go of Victor and turning on me. I used the opening and got a punch in, forcing the two of us into a grappling match. He was big and formidable, and once he deemed me a threat, he didn't hold back. A blow to my shoulder sent shooting pain through my arm, and I responded with a swift knee in his stomach. Meanwhile, his counterpart was on his feet heading toward us. I had to end this fast, not only for my own sake but also because they would undoubtedly call for backup if given a moment's chance. I grabbed the one closest to me and pushed him as hard as I could into a wall–headfirst. He staggered, dazed, and I did it again, just as his partner reached me. That first guardian slumped to the ground, unconscious. I hated doing that, but part of my training had been learning to differentiate between incapacitating and killing. He should only have a headache. I hoped. The other guardian was very much on the offensive, however, and he and I circled each other, getting in some shots and dodging others. â€Å"I can't knock him out!† I called to Lissa. â€Å"We need him. Compel him.† Her response came through the bond. She could compel two people at the same time, but it took a lot of strength. We weren't out of this yet, and she couldn't risk burning herself out so soon. Frustration replaced fear within her. â€Å"Northwood, go to sleep,† she barked. â€Å"Right there. On your desk. You're exhausted and will sleep for hours.† Out of the corner of my eye, I saw Northwood slump, his head hitting the desk with a thump. Everyone who worked here would have a concussion by the time we were through. I threw myself at the guardian then, using my full weight to get him within Lissa's line of sight. She pushed her way into our fight. He glanced at her in surprise, and that was all she needed. â€Å"Stop!† He didn't respond as quickly as Northwood, but he did hesitate. This guy was more resistant. â€Å"Stop fighting!† she repeated more forcefully, intensifying her will. Strong or not, he couldn't stand against that much spirit. His arms fell to his sides, and he stopped wrestling me. I stepped back to catch my breath, straightening my wig back into place. â€Å"Holding this one's going to be hard,† Lissa told me. â€Å"Hard as in five minutes or five hours?† â€Å"Somewhere in the middle.† â€Å"Then let's move. Get Victor's key from him.† She demanded the guardian give her the key for the shackles. He told us the other guardian had it. Sure enough, I frisked the unconscious body–he was breathing steadily, thank God–and retrieved the key. Now I turned my full attention on Victor. Once the fight had started, he'd stepped out of the way and simply observed quietly while all sorts of new possibilities undoubtedly formed in his twisted mind. I approached and put on my â€Å"scary face† as I held up the key. â€Å"I'm going to unlock your cuffs now,† I told him, in a voice both sweet and menacing. â€Å"You're going to do exactly what we tell you to do. You're not going to run, start a fight, or in any way interfere with our plans.† â€Å"Oh? Are you using compulsion nowadays too, Rose?† he asked dryly. â€Å"I don't need it.† I unlocked the shackles. â€Å"I can render you unconscious as easily as that guy and drag you out. Makes no difference to me.† The heavy cuffs and chains fell to the floor. That sly, smug look stayed on his face, but his hands gently touched each wrist. I noticed then that there were welts and bruises on them. Those shackles weren't meant for comfort, but I refused to feel sorry for him. He glanced back up at us. â€Å"How charming,† he mused. â€Å"Out of all the people who would attempt to rescue me, I never would have expected you two†¦ and yet, in retrospect, you're probably the most capable.† â€Å"We don't need your running commentary, Hannibal,† I snapped. â€Å"And don't use the word rescue. It makes it sound like you're some wrongfully imprisoned hero.† He arched an eyebrow, like he believed that might indeed be the case. Instead of disputing me, he nodded toward Bradley, who had actually slept through the fight. In his drugged state, Lissa's compulsion had been more than enough to knock him out. â€Å"Give him to me,† said Victor. â€Å"What?† I exclaimed. â€Å"We don't have time for this!† â€Å"And I have no strength for whatever you have in mind,† hissed Victor. That pleasant and all-knowing mask vanished, replaced by one vicious and desperate. â€Å"Imprisonment involves more than bars, Rose. They starve us of food and blood, trying to keep us weak. Walking here is the only exercise I get, and that's effort enough. Unless you really do plan on dragging me out of here, give me blood!† Lissa interrupted any response I could make. â€Å"Be fast.† I stared at her in astonishment. I'd been about to deny Victor, but through the bond I felt an odd mix of feelings from her. Compassion and†¦ understanding. Oh, she still hated him, absolutely. But she also knew what it was like to live on limited blood. Mercifully, Victor was fast. His mouth was at the human's neck practically before Lissa finished speaking. Dazed or no, feeling teeth in his neck was enough to wake Bradley up. He woke with a start, his face soon moving into the delight feeders took from vampire endorphins. A short burst of blood was all Victor would need, but when Bradley's eyes started to go wide in surprise, I realized Victor was taking more than a quick drink. I leapt forward and jerked Victor away from the scattered feeder. â€Å"What the hell are you doing?† I demanded, shaking Victor hard. It was something I'd wanted to do for a long time. â€Å"Did you think you could drain him and become Strigoi right in front of us?† â€Å"Hardly,† said Victor, wincing at the grip I had on him. â€Å"That's not what he was doing,† said Lissa. â€Å"He just lost control for a second.† His bloodlust satisfied, Victor's smooth demeanor had returned. â€Å"Ah, Vasilisa. Always so understanding.† â€Å"Don't make any assumptions,† she growled. I shot glares at both of them. â€Å"We have to go. Now.† I turned to the compelled guardian. â€Å"Take us to the room where they monitor all security footage.† He didn't respond to me, and with a sigh, I looked expectantly at Lissa. She repeated my question, and he immediately began to leave the room. My adrenaline was running high from the fight, and I was anxious to finish all of this and get us out of here. Through the bond, I sensed her nervousness. She might have defended Victor's need for blood, but as we walked, she kept as far away from him as possible. The stark realization of who he was and what we were doing was creeping up on her. I wished I could comfort her, but there was no time. We followed the guardian–Lissa asked his name; it was Giovanni–through more halls and security checkpoints. The route he led us on went around the prison's edge, not through the cells. I held my breath almost the entire time, terrified we'd run into someone. Too many other factors were working against us; we didn't need that too. Our luck held, though, and we ran into no one–again probably a result of doing this near the end of the night and not passing through a high-security zone. Lissa and Mia had gotten the Court guardian to erase the security footage there too, but I hadn't witnessed it. Now, when Giovanni led us into the prison's surveillance room, I couldn't help a small gasp. Monitors covered the walls, and consoles with complex buttons and switches sat in front of them. Computer-covered desks were everywhere. I felt like this room had the power to blast off into space. Everything in the prison was in view: each cell, several halls, and even the warden's office, where Eddie sat making small talk with Theo. Two other guardians were in here, and I wondered if they'd seen us in the halls. But no–they were too fixated on something else: a camera that had been turned to face a blank wall. It was the one I'd adjusted in the feeding room. They were leaning toward it, and one of them was saying how they should call someone to check down there. Then they both looked up and noticed us. â€Å"Help her subdue them,† Lissa ordered Giovanni. Again, there was hesitation. We would have been better off with a â€Å"helper† with a weaker will, but Lissa had had no idea when she chose him. Like before, he eventually sprang into action. Also like before, surprise went a long way in subduing these two guardians. I was a stranger–immediately raising their guard–but still appeared as human. Giovanni was their coworker; they didn't expect an attack from him. That didn't make them easy to take down, though. Having backup went a long way, and Giovanni was good at his job. We rendered one guardian unconscious pretty quickly, Giovanni using a choke hold to briefly cut off the guy's air until he collapsed. The other guard kept his distance from us, and I noticed his eyes continually shifting toward one of the walls. It had a fire extinguisher, a light switch, and a round silver button. â€Å"That's an alarm!† exclaimed Victor, just as the guardian lunged for it. Giovanni and I tackled him at the same time, stopping the guy just before his hand could brush the button and send a legion of guards down on us. A blow to the head knocked this guardian out too. With each person I took out in this prison break, a knot of guilt and nausea twisted tighter and tighter in my stomach. Guardians were the good guys, and I couldn't help but keep thinking I was fighting on the side of evil. Now that we were left to ourselves, Lissa knew the next step. â€Å"Giovanni, disable all the cameras and erase the last hour's worth of footage.† There was a greater hesitation on his part this time. Getting him to fight his friends had required a lot of forceful compulsion on her part. She was keeping her control but growing weary, and it was only going to get harder making him obey our commands. â€Å"Do it,† growled Victor, coming to stand beside Lissa. She flinched at his proximity, but as his gaze joined hers, Giovanni complied with the order and began flipping switches on the consoles. Victor couldn't match Lissa's power by a long shot, but his small burst of compulsion had strengthened hers. One by one, the monitors went black, and then Giovanni typed in a few commands on the computer that stored digital footage from the cameras. Red error lights were flashing on the consoles, but there was no one here now to fix them. â€Å"Even if he erases it, there are those who might be able to recover it from the hard drive,† noted Victor. â€Å"It's a chance we'll have to take,† I said irritably. â€Å"Reprogramming or whatever isn't really in my skill set.† Victor rolled his eyes. â€Å"Perhaps, but destruction certainly is.† It took me a moment to get what he meant, but then it clicked. With a sigh, I grabbed the fire extinguisher from the wall and beat the computer to a pulp until it was nothing more than a pile of plastic and metal fragments. Lissa winced at each blow and kept glancing at the door. â€Å"I hope that's soundproof,† she muttered. â€Å"It looks sturdy,† I said confidently. â€Å"And now it's time to go.† Lissa ordered Giovanni to return us to the warden's office at the front of the prison. He complied, leading us back through the maze we'd gone through earlier. His codes and security card got us through each checkpoint. â€Å"I don't suppose you can compel Theo into letting us walk out?† I asked Lissa. Her mouth was set in a grim line. She shook her head. â€Å"I don't even know how much longer I can hold Giovanni. I've never used someone as a puppet before.† â€Å"It's okay,† I said, trying to reassure both of us. â€Å"We're almost done with this.† But we were going to have another fight on our hands. After beating up half the Strigoi in Russia, I still felt good about my own strength, but that guilty feeling wouldn't leave me. And if we ran into a dozen guardians, even my strength wasn't going to hold. I'd lost my bearings from the blueprint, but it turned out that Giovanni's route back to the main office was taking us through a block of cells after all. Another sign read overhead WARNING–NOW ENTERING PRISONER AREA (PSYCHIATRIC). â€Å"Psychiatric?† I asked in surprise. â€Å"Of course,† murmured Victor. â€Å"Where else do you think they send prisoners with mental problems?† â€Å"To hospitals,† I responded, holding back a joke about all criminals having mental problems. â€Å"Well, that's not always–â€Å" â€Å"Stop!† Lissa interrupted him and came to an abrupt halt before the door. The rest of us nearly walked into her. She jerked away, taking several steps back. â€Å"What's wrong?† I asked. She turned to Giovanni. â€Å"Find another way to the office.† â€Å"This is the fastest way,† he argued. Lissa slowly shook her head. â€Å"I don't care. Find another, one where we won't run into others.† He frowned, but her compulsion held. He abruptly turned, and we scurried to keep up. â€Å"What's wrong?† I repeated. Lissa's mind was too tangled for me to pull out her reasoning. She grimaced. â€Å"I felt spirit auras behind there.† â€Å"What? How many?† â€Å"At least two. I don't know if they sensed me or not.† If not for Giovanni's clip and the urgency pressing on us, I would have come to a stop. â€Å"Spirit users†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Lissa had looked so long and hard for others like her. Who'd have thought we'd find them here? Actually†¦ maybe we should have expected this. We knew spirit users danced with insanity. Why wouldn't they end up in a place like this? And considering the trouble we'd gone through to learn about the prison, it was no wonder these spirit users had remained hidden. I doubted anyone working here even knew what they were. Lissa and I exchanged brief glances. I knew how badly she wanted to investigate this, but now wasn't the time. Victor already looked too interested in what we'd said, so Lissa's next words were in my head: I'm pretty sure any spirit users would see through my charms. We can't risk our real descriptions being discovered–even if they came from people who are allegedly crazy. I nodded my understanding, pushing aside curiosity and even regret. We'd have to check into this another time–say, like, the next time we decided to break into a maximum-security prison. We finally reached Theo's office without further incident, though my heart pounded furiously the entire way as my brain kept telling me, Go! Go! Go! Theo and Eddie were chatting Court politics when our group entered. Eddie immediately leapt up and went for Theo, recognizing it was time to go. He had Theo in a choke hold as efficiently as Giovanni had managed earlier, and I was glad someone else was doing this dirty work besides me. Unfortunately, Theo managed a good yelp before passing out and falling to the ground. Immediately, the two guardians who had escorted us in earlier charged the office. Eddie and I jumped into the fray, and Lissa and Victor got Giovanni in on it too. To make things more difficult, just after we subdued one of the guardians, Giovanni broke out of the compulsion and began fighting against us. Worse, he ran to the wall where I discovered–too late–there was another silver alarm button. He slammed his fist against it, and a piercing wail filled the air. â€Å"Shit!† I yelled. Lissa's skills weren't in physical fighting, and Victor wasn't much better. It was all on me and Eddie to finish these last two–and we had to do it fast. The second of the escort guardians went down, and then it was just us and Giovanni. He got a good hit in on me–one that knocked my head against the wall. It wasn't good enough to make me pass out, but the world spun and black and white spots danced before my eyes. It froze me up for a moment, but then Eddie was on him, and Giovanni was soon no longer a threat. Eddie took my arm to steady me, and then the four of us immediately ran out of the room. I glanced back at the unconscious bodies, again hating myself for it. There was no time for guilt, though. We had to get out. Now. Every guardian in this prison would be here in less than a minute. Our group ran to the front doors, only to discover them locked from the inside. Eddie swore and told us to wait. He ran back to Theo's office and returned with one of the security cards that Giovanni had often swiped at the doors. Sure enough, this one let us out, and we made a mad dash for the rental car. We piled in, and I was glad Victor kept up with all of us and made none of his annoying comments. Eddie stepped on the gas and headed back toward the way we'd come in. I sat beside him in the front. â€Å"I guarantee the gate guy's going to know about the alarm,† I warned. Our original hope had been to simply leave and tell him there'd been a paperwork mix-up after all. â€Å"Yup,† Eddie agreed, face hard. Sure enough, the guardian stepped out of his gatehouse, arms waving. â€Å"Is that a gun?† I exclaimed. â€Å"I'm not stopping to find out.† Eddie pushed hard on the gas, and when the guardian realized we were coming through regardless, he jumped out of the way. We crashed through the wooden arm that blocked the road, leaving it a mess of splinters. â€Å"Bud's gonna keep our deposit,† I said. Behind us, I heard the sounds of gunshots. Eddie swore again, but as we sped away, the shots grew fainter, and soon, we were out of range. He exhaled. â€Å"If those had hit our tires or windows, we'd have had a lot more to worry about than a deposit.† â€Å"They're going to send people after us,† said Victor from the backseat. Once again, Lissa had moved as far from him as she could. â€Å"Trucks are probably leaving right now.† â€Å"You don't think we guessed that?† I snapped. I knew he was trying to be helpful, but he was the last person I wanted to hear from at the moment. Even as I spoke, I peered back and saw the dark shapes of two vehicles speeding down the road after us. They were gaining quickly, leaving no question that the SUVs would soon catch up to our little compact car. I looked at our GPS. â€Å"We need to turn soon,† I warned Eddie, not that he needed my advice. We'd mapped out an escape route beforehand, one that took lots and lots of twisty turns on these remote back roads. Fortunately, there were a lot of them. Eddie made a hard left and then almost an immediate right. Still, the pursuing vehicles stayed with us in the rearview mirror. It wasn't until a few turns later that the road behind us stayed clear. Tense silence filled the car as we waited for the guardians to catch up. They didn't. We'd made too many confusing turns, but it took nearly ten minutes for me to accept that we might have actually pulled this off. â€Å"I think we lost them,† said Eddie, the wonder in his voice matching my feelings. His face was still lined with worry, his hands gripping the wheel hard. â€Å"We won't lose them until we clear Fairbanks,† I said. â€Å"I'm sure they'll search it, and it's not that big.† â€Å"Where are we going?† asked Victor. â€Å"If I'm allowed to ask.† I squirmed around in my seat so that I could look him in the eye. â€Å"That's what you're going to tell us. As hard as it is to believe, we didn't do all that just because we missed your pleasant company.† â€Å"That is hard to believe.† I narrowed my eyes. â€Å"We want to find your brother. Robert Doru.† I had the satisfaction of momentarily catching Victor off guard. Then his sly look returned. â€Å"Of course. This is a follow-up to Abe Mazur's request, isn't it? I should have known he wouldn't take no for an answer. Of course, I never would have guessed you were in league with him.† Victor apparently didn't know I was actually in the familial league with Abe, and I wasn't about to enlighten him. â€Å"Irrelevant,† I said coldly. â€Å"Now, you're going to take us to Robert. Where is he?† â€Å"You forget, Rose,† mused Victor. â€Å"You aren't the one with compulsion here.† â€Å"No, but I am the one who can tie you up by the side of the road and make an anonymous call back to the prison with your whereabouts.† â€Å"How do I know you won't get what you want from me and then turn me back in anyway?† he asked. â€Å"I have no reason to trust you.† â€Å"You're right. I sure as hell wouldn't trust me. But if things work out, there's a chance we might let you go afterward.† No, there really wasn't. â€Å"Is this something you want to gamble on? You'll never get another opportunity like this, and you know it.† Victor had no witty quip for that. Score another one for me. â€Å"So,† I continued, â€Å"are you going to take us to him or not?† Thoughts I couldn't read churned behind his eyes. No doubt he was scheming about how he could work this to his advantage, probably figuring out how to escape us before we even reached Robert. It was what I would have done. â€Å"Las Vegas,† Victor said at last. â€Å"We need to go to Las Vegas.†

How to Manage Time Efficiently Essay

â€Å"Why is it important for future managers to manage their time efficiently? Do you usually make the most of your day? And how?† It goes without saying that having a healthy attitude to time-keeping is very important for everyone, because if you make the most of your time, you are in good physical conditions, relaxed and have lower stress levels than those, who organize their time. Future managers control processes in an organization and they must use every opportunity as successfully and usefully as possible, leave time for their personal life to be successful and happy. Time- management is a very useful tool to achieve goals. I think it is very hard to make the most of the day, if you are perfectionist. I prefer to be self-employed, so I have to take control of my time and do as much as possible every day. There is a saying â€Å"the early bird catches the worm† so I get up early every morning, do my morning procedures promptly and go to the university. Sometimes I write a list of things to do, where I organize things I should do into categories, set priorities and then perform everything according to my list. I do not follow orders, what is very important if you want to organize your time efficiently. If I have an appointment with somebody, I am always on time for it. Time- management courses are not that effective as many think. By far the most helpful things I understood about time- management is that you should write a list of things that should be done, but no more than 7. Afterwards you should choose 1- 3 things that are necessary for you and should be done at the first place. Really, you should choose just one priority task and make it without excuses. If you made all 7 things should be extremely happy, but even if you have done just your priority, you should be glad too. I think that it is the rule- of- thumb- be glad with what you’ve done, but always aim at greater.

Free Essays on Abandonment Of The Jews

The Abandonment of the Jews By David S. Wyman â€Å"To kill the Jews, the Nazis were willing to weaken their capacity to fight the war. The United States and its allies, however, were willing to attempt almost nothing to save them† (Pp 5). If we would have put half as much energy into loving the Jews as Hitler spent hating the Jews we could have made a great difference. Wyman’s book, The Abandonment of the Jews was very intriguing to me. Although I found it very thorough it left me wanting to know how something this horrible could have been allowed to happen. Although Wyman does discuss why more was not done, I am still horrified that this was allowed to happen. Wyman proves that the US should and could have done more to help the dying Jews. I found a reoccurring theme to be that a large problem was that Jewish people had nowhere to go. No one wanted them. The book begins by giving a brief background into the setting of America at the onset of the war. It details an anti-Semitic America. It also explains most of the anti-Semitism as passive, which ordinarily would do little harm, but during a holocaust crisis became a reason for America’s inaction. The book then jumps right into the emergence of information that became available. The first major report was the Bund report. This estimated the number of victims to already be over 700,000. This report and the ones to follow were hard to believe. The state departments skepticism kept the news from reaching the media for several months. They were convinced that the deportations were for slave labor even though this explanation has huge flaws. As more reports of the mass murders developed they were finally confirmed, 17 months after the first killing began. One of the first steps taken was that seven different Jewish organizations came together to form the Temporary Committee. They decided on 5 steps of action and after obtaining them they dissolved the committee without... Free Essays on Abandonment Of The Jews Free Essays on Abandonment Of The Jews The Abandonment of the Jews By David S. Wyman â€Å"To kill the Jews, the Nazis were willing to weaken their capacity to fight the war. The United States and its allies, however, were willing to attempt almost nothing to save them† (Pp 5). If we would have put half as much energy into loving the Jews as Hitler spent hating the Jews we could have made a great difference. Wyman’s book, The Abandonment of the Jews was very intriguing to me. Although I found it very thorough it left me wanting to know how something this horrible could have been allowed to happen. Although Wyman does discuss why more was not done, I am still horrified that this was allowed to happen. Wyman proves that the US should and could have done more to help the dying Jews. I found a reoccurring theme to be that a large problem was that Jewish people had nowhere to go. No one wanted them. The book begins by giving a brief background into the setting of America at the onset of the war. It details an anti-Semitic America. It also explains most of the anti-Semitism as passive, which ordinarily would do little harm, but during a holocaust crisis became a reason for America’s inaction. The book then jumps right into the emergence of information that became available. The first major report was the Bund report. This estimated the number of victims to already be over 700,000. This report and the ones to follow were hard to believe. The state departments skepticism kept the news from reaching the media for several months. They were convinced that the deportations were for slave labor even though this explanation has huge flaws. As more reports of the mass murders developed they were finally confirmed, 17 months after the first killing began. One of the first steps taken was that seven different Jewish organizations came together to form the Temporary Committee. They decided on 5 steps of action and after obtaining them they dissolved the committee without...

Sociology of Work and Industry

Sociology of Work and Industry No matter what society one lives in, all human beings depend on systems of production to survive. For people in all societies, productive activity, or work, makes up the largest part of their lives- it takes up more time than any other single type of behavior. Defining Work Work, in sociology, is defined as the carrying out of tasks, which involves the expenditure of mental and physical effort, and its objective is the production of goods and services that cater to human needs. An occupation, or job, is work that is done in exchange for a regular wage or salary. In all cultures, work is the basis of the economy or economic system. The economic system for any given culture is made up of the institutions that provide for the production and distribution of goods and services. These institutions may vary from culture to culture, particularly in traditional societies versus modern societies. In traditional cultures, food gathering and food production is the type of work occupied by the majority of the population. In larger traditional societies, carpentry, stonemasonry, and shipbuilding are also prominent. In modern societies where industrial development exists, people work in a much wider variety of occupations. Sociological Theory The study of work, industry, and economic institutions is a major part of sociology because the economy influences all other parts of society and therefore social reproduction in general. It doesn’t matter if we are talking about a hunter-gatherer society, pastoral society, agricultural society, or industrial society; all are centered around an economic system that affects all parts of society, not just personal identities and daily activities. Work is closely intertwined with social structures, social processes, and especially social inequality. The sociology of work goes back to the classical sociological theorists. Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber all considered the analysis of modern work to be central to the field of sociology. Marx was the first social theorist to really examine the conditions of work in factories that were popping up during the industrial revolution, looking at how the transition from independent craftwork to working for a boss in a factory resulted in alienation and deskilling. Durkheim, on the other hand, was concerned with how societies achieved stability through norms, customs, and traditions as work and industry changed during the industrial revolution. Weber focused on the development of new types of authority that emerged in modern bureaucratic organizations. Important Research Many studies in the sociology of work are comparative. For instance, researchers might look at differences in employment and organizational forms across societies as well as across time. Why, for example, do Americans work on average more than 400 hours more per year than those in the Netherlands while South Koreans work more than 700 hours more per year than Americans? Another big topic often studied in the sociology of work is how work is tied to social inequality. For instance, sociologists might look at racial and gender discrimination in the workplace. At the macro level of analysis, sociologists are interested in studying things such as occupational structure, the United States and global economies, and how changes in technology lead to changes in demographics. At the micro level of analysis, sociologists look at topics such as the demands that the workplace and occupations place on workers’ sense of self and identity, and the influence of work on families. References Giddens, A. (1991) Introduction to Sociology. New York, NY: W.W. Norton Company. Vidal, M. (2011). The Sociology of Work. Accessed March 2012 from everydaysociologyblog.com/2011/11/the-sociology-of-work.html

3 Ways to Double Up When Converting Passive Constructions to Active Ones

3 Ways to Double Up When Converting Passive Constructions to Active Ones 3 Ways to Double Up When Converting Passive Constructions to Active Ones 3 Ways to Double Up When Converting Passive Constructions to Active Ones By Mark Nichol Revising sentences so that they’re more active isn’t mandatory, but strive to make most of your passively constructed sentences more dynamic- and while you’re at it, don’t overlook opportunities to give a sentence more than one burst of energy. 1. Now that you have the business activities and conflicting activities defined, the associated privileges can be assigned to those activities. This sentence is easily rendered more active by repurposing the adjective defined as a verb and fortifying the bland verb have with it: â€Å"Now that you have defined the business activities and conflicting activities, the associated privileges can be assigned to those activities.† Even better, make the sentence imperative and therefore more forceful by beginning the main clause with the verb rather than the noun phrase: â€Å"Now that you have defined the business activities and conflicting activities, assign the associated privileges to those activities.† 2. There will still need to be thought given to understanding how conflicts of interest are identified and managed. Avoid beginning a sentence with a vague expletive; start with a noun: â€Å"Thought will still need to be given to understanding how conflicts of interest are identified and managed.† Better yet, enable the more active basic form of the verb give by employing the key noun at the outset: â€Å"Management will still need to give thought to understanding how conflicts of interest are identified and managed,† and explicitly stating that management itself identifies and manages conflicts of interests, rather than implying some vague actor, will strengthen the sentence even more: â€Å"Management will still need to give thought to understanding how it identifies and manages conflicts of interest.† 3. These have been in place for about ten years, with compliance actively monitored through annual assessments undertaken by a qualified assessor. Using with is a weak way to start a sentence or a clause. Easily strengthen a statement by converting a dependent clause into an independent clause; simply change with to and and insert a form of the verb â€Å"to be†: â€Å"These have been in place for about ten years, and compliance is actively monitored through annual assessments undertaken by a qualified assessor.† Better yet, in addition to employing the first half of this easy fix, fortify the second clause by making the actor, rather than the action, the subject: â€Å"These have been in place for about ten years, and a qualified assessor actively monitors compliance through annual assessments.† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Style category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:50 Slang Terms for MoneySelect vs. Selected8 Great Podcasts for Writers and Book Authors

Team-building and its relation to the individual Essay

Team-building and its relation to the individual - Essay Example that of leadership. While a view holds that executive and policy determining managers should assume and nurture leadership roles; it is the view here that management and leadership are two distinct functions and should be developed as such. This paper looks at definition of leadership function in the any organization's management milieu and in the direct context of team building, at the same time keeping intact applicability of drawn constructs to broader organized units such as nation and government. In order to do this the paper draws from the examples of biographies and writings of Franklin, Emerson and Melville and discusses how the responsibilities as a leader can be met in order to develop an effective team for the accomplishment of the organizational goals that in the presence of dissent and disagreement. The paper rests its theoretical arguments on the three important conceptual frameworks i.e. of the leadership authority, empowerment of people, and the quality imperative ass umed by the leadership. In course of discussions the leadership function is distinguished from the management function and theoretical types of leaderships are summarized. A view holds that leaders are people oriented and their main task is to inspire people. Here the leaders are somebody who is responding to a call to serve and motivations limiting altruistic expanse of usual executive managers are bounded only by the limitations of such leaders in respect of their personal abilities. The primary functional output for leaders is a change and their capabilities are assessed in terms of controlling the process of this change. This is the approach theme to leadership assumed in this paper. That is to mould and control change to suit organization's objectives. Whereas managers are task and process oriented and their main task is to organize such tasks and processes. Management's main output is task done in target time at target cost. In plain language Management is assigned the task of producing and maintaining a degree of predictability & order. Leadership on the other hand assumes the function of producing change under a constantly updated schemata of direction and vision. According to Bennis "They(leaders) offer people opportunities to create their own vision, to explore what the vision will mean to their jobs and lives, and to envision their future as part of the vision for the organization," (Bennis, 1997). Leadership is the process of motivating others to work to meet specific goals and objectives. This direction and motivation are the practical steps that a leader can take to empower others and develop a high-performance workplace. Leadership is deliberately causing people-driven actions in a planned fashion for the purpose of accomplishing the leader's agenda which is often a superset of the organizational agenda. In the fast paced information technology based changed commercial scenario the leadership role is best summarized by (Vaill, 1997) as," One is looking at a human being (Leader) facing in real time a condition that is problematic for the organizational objectives the person is pursuing. The objectives themselves ma y be changing, and the problematic condition may be changing as

What Part Does Cultural Compatibility Play in Determining The Success Essay

What Part Does Cultural Compatibility Play in Determining The Success of Cross-Border Mergers & Acquisitions - Essay Example Most often, considerations in relation to financing and strategies have become the main concern in obtaining the acquisition targets or merger partners that are most suitable for a company’s purpose. Usually, decisions are made depending on certain issues such as availability, price and probable earnings. When their activity fails, the analysis of merger failure or weak performance is often focused on the re-examination of certain factors that initiated the decision for selection (Schweiger & Goulet 2005). Often, poor selection decisions for mergers and acquisitions are associated with an overly high purchase price, incompetence of managers in achieving goals, or that the companies simply do not match each other. These factors have been continuously examined yet M & A activity has not obtained the necessary improvements (Teerikangas 2007; Seo & Hill 2005). Because of this, international acquisitions make up inconsistencies: despite the fact that business practice and academic research have reported that many of these activities fail to achieve their objectives, cross-cultural acquisitions still remain to be a popular strategy for multinational companies. Therefore, it is necessary that the causes of international merger and acquisition failure are examined as well as the strategies for addressing such problems. As reported by Galpin & Herndon (2007), in a study of 190 top executives who were involved in the global acquisition, it was believed that cultural incompatibility was viewed as the greatest barrier to the success of their M & A activities. Furthermore, the 1996 British Institute of Management survey reported that when merging two cultures is underestimated, it becomes a significant factor for failure (Carleton and Lineberry 2004).

The Internet is unreliable source of information Essay

The Internet is unreliable source of information - Essay Example be manipulated and altered depending on someone’s point of view, lies can be made to discredit others or improve someone’s credibility, and consumers can get sucked into buying something that they don’t fully understand. The reason why we cannot believe everything that is on the Internet is because some information can be changed to suit someone’s biased opinion. For example, the site Wikipedia.com is an unreliable source of information because anyone can go onto the website and change the information anytime that he or she wants. If such a website is considered as a reliable source to get information from, then we will be led astray. It is difficult to believe anything that comes from that website even if the information is common sense. One group that may take advantage of this situation is hackers. As we know, these people hack websites for several reasons, and only one of the reasons is for changing information on a website. Other motives could be due to money, for revenge, or personal attacks. This is a huge danger that affects the credibility of websites as source of reliable information. Another reason why the internet cannot be trusted is that there are many lies online. You cannot even imagine how many lies are posted every day. This does not just affecting website credibility; it also gives that website a bad reputation, which means that the site is marked â€Å"x†. Why do people post lies on the Internet? This is a good question that cannot be fully answered. Some examples of this are people lying on dating websites in order to find a better partner and businesses lying to grab people’s attention. For dating websites, people do not post bad pictures of themselves because they want to make sure that their profiles are perfect. When someone looks at the profile and sees what a person wrote about him or herself, the reader may say: â€Å"that is the type of person who I have been looking to find for a long time.† What makes me laugh is that

Public Relations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 4

Public Relations - Essay Example After getting all the information I required, I appreciated them for the time they spared to talk to me and left. Evaluation of public relations programs is instrumental in determining the effectiveness of the programs that an organisation has set. Stated objectives will enable the public relations officers and workers of an organisation to know how they will communicate the desired message to the public effectively. The stated objectives set the standards that will guide people in an organisation on how to relate to the public and customers of the organisation. The standards are instrumental since people will ensure that they live up to the rules of dealing with the public. Therefore, objectives will determine the proper communication strategies that people in an organisation will follow to reach to the public (Thinkspot). Coca cola has an awareness operation on Facebook, which has the goal of increasing its customer base in the world. It aims at reaching out on people on Facebook, and informs them of the products that the company provides on the Coca Cola Facebook page. I would use surveys to asses my goals and to determine whether my public relations campaign is effective. Surveys will include asking the public whether the awareness program is working. This would be the most effective since it will give me immediate feedback from the targeted audience of my

Nursing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 4

Nursing - Essay Example This will ensure that that person understands what the institution like and hospital believes in and stand for. If everyone understand what is expected of him or her, it is very easy while in the course of business because it will just be about reminding them. Health institutions offering nursing services must give priority to its own staff by letting them understand where the institution is leading. A people without direction have no motivation at all. The vision gives a direction and objective as well as clearly outlined plans of how to achieve the set goals. Engaging staff while formulating these goals is very important for it encourages them to have a sense of ownership of the institution. This makes them see that they also have the power to make a contribution in making contribution towards success of their own institution. Workers may be having great ideas that can turn around the state of health. Nurses always have better solutions to solve their own problems but the management teams always think that it can solve all the problems of the people. Another wonderful strategy is allowing workers to form their own unions, which can help them air their views. When one is employed, the needs increases with time with the focus shifting from only salary to other needs in an order called hierarchy of needs. Every institution should ensure that nurses are given the freedom to form their own associations so that their opinions may be heard equally as for the executive team. While making critical decisions that affects the lives of all the staff, it is crucial to consult the staff through their unions and

Principles and Practice of Psychosocial Rehabilitation (mental Essay

Principles and Practice of Psychosocial Rehabilitation (mental nursing) - Essay Example It is reported that the rehabilitation unit helped Mr. Brayan to develop living skills such as cognition, using laundry, cooking food etc. Psychosocial Rehabilitation is the process in which the psychiatric patients are trained systematically to bring back them to the active participation in the society. â€Å"Psychiatric rehabilitation aims to improve the functioning and quality of life of individuals with psychiatricdisabilities due to serious mental illnesses†. (Rudnick 2003, p.1). â€Å"The strategies adopted for the management of schizophrenia may differ from one country to other country and may influence motivational readiness for change. For this purpose, rehabilitation approaches like vocational training, employment guidance, cognitive behavioural therapy, and psychosocial methods were included. In addition, issues surrounding gender differences, scarcity of resources, conventional medicine, and importance on family role were also need to be considered for the rehabilitation of patients.† (Review of Literature, p. 2.). The recovery is the objective of the psychosocial rehabilitation. In this case study the Psychosocial Rehabilitation of a patient suffering from Schizophrenia in Shellharbour Hospital Mental Health Rehabilitation Unit is done. The aim of the rehabilitation is to enhance the quality of life of the patient named Brayne, who is a 45 years old male with chronic Paranoid Schizophrenia. Brayne lives alone. His functioning at home was very poor. He was not able to manage his finance and his condition make him vulnerable to the extend of exploitation by other. These conditions often leave him without sufficient money towards the end of each fortnight for basic necessities such as food and transport. He came to rehabilitation in need of help in Shellharbour Hospital to learn many skills like how to use kitchen for cooking, how to use the laundry etc. The case study further explains about the rehabilitation program that is carried out in the Mental

Nursing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 4

Nursing - Essay Example This will ensure that that person understands what the institution like and hospital believes in and stand for. If everyone understand what is expected of him or her, it is very easy while in the course of business because it will just be about reminding them. Health institutions offering nursing services must give priority to its own staff by letting them understand where the institution is leading. A people without direction have no motivation at all. The vision gives a direction and objective as well as clearly outlined plans of how to achieve the set goals. Engaging staff while formulating these goals is very important for it encourages them to have a sense of ownership of the institution. This makes them see that they also have the power to make a contribution in making contribution towards success of their own institution. Workers may be having great ideas that can turn around the state of health. Nurses always have better solutions to solve their own problems but the management teams always think that it can solve all the problems of the people. Another wonderful strategy is allowing workers to form their own unions, which can help them air their views. When one is employed, the needs increases with time with the focus shifting from only salary to other needs in an order called hierarchy of needs. Every institution should ensure that nurses are given the freedom to form their own associations so that their opinions may be heard equally as for the executive team. While making critical decisions that affects the lives of all the staff, it is crucial to consult the staff through their unions and

The Abyssinian crisis led to the failure of the League of Nations Essay

The Abyssinian crisis led to the failure of the League of Nations - Essay Example This organization is commonly known as the League of Nations, which is the predecessor of the United Nations. The League of Nations was categorical that members must maintain peace among themselves and with other countries in the world. However, in 1935, one League member, Italy, attacked another member, Abyssinia. There were clear signs that Italy would attack Abyssinia but nothing was done by the League of Nations to prevent the attack. It seemed like the League was biased towards countries which led to that attack and several others that eventually led to the fall of the League of Nations. The Failure of the League of Nations to solve the Italy and Abyssinian crisis discredited the League significantly and is probably one of the reasons the League of Nations failed in the subsequent years. The League of Nations When the World War One finally came to an end in November 1918, many people in the world did not want to experience or have their future generations experience the horrors of war ever again. Leaders from Europe, United States and other world countries met in France in 1919 to come up with an organization that would safeguard the world from wars. The main working principles of the League of Nations were disarmament of the countries and provide security to the League members like an alliance. Under these terms and conditions, no League member would attack another League member. In the case of disputes among the members of the League, democratic process would be used to solve the dispute amicably under the oversight of the other members of the League of Nations. Events Leading to Italy-Abyssinia Crisis of1935 Italy was one of the most powerful countries immediately after the World War One. Benito Mussolini, the Italian Prime Minister of the time envisioned a large Italian empire that would be ruled by him. In this case, he was looking for regions to expand the Italian invasion to. The large empire would provide the much required material for the Italian industries and Military as well as provide regions for expanding population to settle in. A large empire would also play an important role in instilling national pride and prestige. In fact, Winston Churchill had lamented that countries that were dependent on many war commodities like Italy would consider getting unhampered imports (Florian 7). Italy also felt left behind by its European peers in the scramble for Africa in especially the Easy African region. The country has possessions in East Africa were not resourceful as its peers and wanted to expand. It is also claimed that the Battle of Adowa, in which Italian troops were defeated by Abyssinian troops was of great shame and Mussolini wanted to revenge the attack. In fact, it is thought that he was looking for reasons to regain glory by defeating Abyssinia (Mendum and Waugh 19). A German official was quoted saying that Mussolini was not moving his troops in Africa back to Italy without glory. There were Italian troops in Somali a and Libya at the time (Kelly and Lacey 78). An opportunity for Benito Mussolini to do exactly what he was waiting for arose in December 1934 during the Wal Wal dispute. It is claimed that on 22nd November 1934, Ethiopian troops arrived at the Wal Wal fort and demanded that the Somali-Italian troops there to withdraw from the fort as it was in Ethiopia. The head of the fort refused but the Ethiopian troops persisted for the following days. Tensions were high and between 5th and 7th December 1934, there were collisions between Ethiopians and Italians and Somalis. None of the two parties involved in the incident claimed responsibility. The Italian government demanded that the

Rapamycin And Cisplatin In Breast Cancers

Rapamycin And Cisplatin In Breast Cancers Recent gene expression profiling has identified five breast cancer subtypes, of which the basal-like breast cancers are the most aggressive and possess serious clinical challenges as there are currently no targeted therapies available. Although there is increasing evidence that these tumors confer specific sensitivity to cisplatin, its success is often compromised due to its dose-limiting nephrotoxicity and development of drug resistance. To overcome this limitation, our focus is to maximize the benefits associated with cisplatin therapy through drug combination strategies. Using a well-validated kinase inhibitors library, we showed that inhibition of mTOR, TGFà ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¢RI, NFà ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ «B, PI3K/AKT and MAPK pathway sensitized the basal-like MDA-MB-468 cells to cisplatin treatment. Further evaluation demonstrated that combination of mTOR inhibitor, rapamycin, and cisplatin generated significant drug synergism specifically in basal-like cells (MDA-MB-468, MDA-MB-231 and HCC1937). Th ese synergistic effects were not observed in the luminal-like T47D and MCF-7 cells. We further showed that the synergistic effects of rapamycin and cisplatin is mediated through p73. Treatment of rapamycin induced p73 upregulation and synergized cisplatin activity through activation of the p73 pathway. Depletion of endogenous p73 in basal-like cells abolished these synergistic effects suggesting that p73 is required for the rapamycin and cisplatin synergism. In conclusion, combination of mTOR inhibitors and cisplatin may be a useful therapeutic strategy in basal-like breast cancers. INTRODUCTION Recent identification of novel breast cancer subtypes with distinct biological features promises a more specific, effective and less toxic therapies to the patients. Through gene profiling, breast cancer can be categorized into five different subtypes with distinct clinical outcome. The five major subtypes of breast cancer are luminal A, luminal B, human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER2) overexpressing, normal-like and basal-like breast cancer [1, 2]. Of particular important is the basal-like breast cancer which accounts for 15-20% of breast cancers overall and confers a remarkably poor prognosis compared to other subtypes. Majority of basal-like breast cancers exhibit a triple-negative phenotype, characterized by the lack of expression of estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR) or HER2 amplification, and often have high frequency of p53 mutation [3, 4]. Due to the lack of expression of these receptors (ER, PR and HER2), patients with basal-like breast cancers usua lly do not response to hormonal therapy, Herceptin or chemotherapy [5, 6]. As a consequence, the mortality rate of basal-like breast cancer is relatively high in comparison with the non-basal subtype [1]. Numerous clinical studies are currently ongoing to identify novel therapy for treatment of basal-like breast cancers. These include the use of specific targeted therapeutic agents (e.g. Cetuximab, Dasatinib, Bevacizumab, Abraxane and Erlotinib) or conventional chemotherapeutics agents (e.g. cisplatin, doxorubicin, and paclitaxel), either as single agent or in combination, as first line therapy for basal-like breast cancers [7-9]. Cisplatin, a chemotherapeutic agent not commonly used for breast cancer, come to light in the management of basal-like breast cancer on account of evidence that breast cancer cells with basal-like phenotype confer a selective sensitivity towards cisplatin as compared to other chemotherapeutic agents. A variety of evidence suggests that basal-like breast cancers may share defects in BRCA1-associated pathways, of which DNA repair mechanism has been compromised [10]. Indeed, recent clinical studies have demonstrated the clear advantage of cisplatin in treatment of basal-like breast cancer compared to other chemotherapeutic agents [11, 12]. Nevertheless, dose-limiting toxicity including nephrotoxicity, neurotoxicity and ototoxicity have withold the wide-spread use of cisplatin in treating breast cancers in the clinic. To address this problem, we developed a high-throughput screening assay to rapidly identify new therapeutic agents that could synergize the antitumor effects of cisplatin in basal-like breast cancers. Through the use of a small chemical library that targets some of the most relevant oncogenic pathways in basal-like breast cancer, we show that inhibition of mTOR by rapamycin incurred a specific synergistic effect with cisplatin in basal-like breast cancer cells. This synergistic effect is mediated in part through the induction and activation of p73 in the presence of rapamycin and cisplatin, respectively. Together, our findings demonstrate evidence of a synergistic relation between rapamycin and cisplatin in both inhibition of cell growth and induction of apoptosis. This suggests that rapamycin and cisplatin may be a rational combination of a targeted therapy for the refractory basal-like breast cancers. Materials and Methods Cell lines and cell culture The human breast carcinoma cell lines MCF-7, T47D, MDA-MB-231, MDA-MB-468 and HCC1937 were obtained from the American Type Culture Collection (Manassas, VA) and maintained in RPMI 1640 medium containing 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), 100 IU/ml penicillin and 100 ÃŽÂ ¼g/ml streptomycin (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) at 37 °C with 5% CO2. MTT cell proliferation assay Dose-response curves and IC50 values were determined using the methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium (MTT) cell viability assay as described previously [4, 13]. Cells were seeded into 96-well plates for 24 hours at a density of 5 ÃÆ'- 103 cells/well. Serial drug dilutions were prepared in medium immediately before each assay, and viable cell masses following 3 days of drug exposure were determined by cell-mediated MTT reduction. Cell growth as well as drug activity was determined by measuring absorbance at 550 nm using an Anthos systems plate reader. Construction of IC50 mean graph The IC50 mean graph was constructed as defined by the Developmental Therapeutics Program of the National Cancer Institute (http://dtp.nci.nih.gov). The mean graph consists of positive (more sensitive) and negative (less sensitive) delta values, generated from a set of IC50 values by using a three-step calculation. The IC50 values for each of cell line against the tested compound were converted to log(IC50) values. For each tested compound, the log(IC50) values are averaged. Finally, the individual IC50 value is then subtracted from the average to generate the delta value. Positive delta values project to the right of the vertical line and represent cellular sensitivities to the test agent that exceed the mean. Negative values project to the left and represent cell line sensitivities to the test agent that are less than the average value. Library screening The Inhibitor Select„ ¢ chemical library which consists of 160 well-characterized, cell-permeable inhibitors was purchased from EMD Chemicals, USA. MDA-MB-468 cells at the logarithmic phase of growth were seeded into 96-well plate at a density of 5 ÃÆ'- 103 cells/well. Each compound was added to a final concentration of 10  µM in the absence or presence of 1  µM cisplatin. Plates were incubated for 72h at 37 °C. Cell proliferation was examined using MTT assay as described previously. Combination treatments that induce growth inhibition higher than those of the same doses used alone (p Drug interaction analysis Drug combination analysis was performed by using the method as described by Chou and Talalay [14]. Briefly, cells were seeded at 5 ÃÆ'- 103 cells/well in 96-well plates and treated with various concentrations of cisplatin and compound alone or in combination for 72h. Cell proliferation was measured in each well by MTT assay. Multiple drug dose-effect calculations and the combination index plots were generated using Calcusyn software (Biosoft, Cambridge, UK). Combination index, CI 1 indicate synergism, additive effect and antagonism, respectively. Apoptosis assays Quantitation of apoptosis by annexin V/PI staining was performed as described previously [3, 4]. Briefly, both floating and attached cells were collected 72h after drug treatments. Apoptotic cell death was determined using the BD ApoAlert annexin V-FITC Apoptosis Kit (BD Biosciences, USA) according to the manufacturers instructions, and cells were analyzed on a FACSCalibur flow cytometer using CellQuest Pro software (version 5.1.1; BD Biosciences, USA). Quantitative PCR (qPCR) analysis Total RNA from cells was extracted using Qiagen RNA isolation kit (Qiagen, Valencia, CA, USA) according to the manufacturers protocol. First-strand cDNA was synthesized from total RNA using random hexamer primers and the SuperScript II system for RT-PCR (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, USA). Gene expression levels were measured by qPCR using the iQ SYBR Green Supermix reagent and an Biorad iQ5 real-time PCR detector system (Bio-Rad, Richmond, CA, USA). Data analysis was performed using Opticon Monitor Analysis Software V1.08. The expression of each gene was normalized to ÃŽÂ ²2M as a reference. The relative copy numbers were calculated from an 8-point standard curve generated from a 10-fold serial dilution of full-length cDNA constructs as described previously [3, 4]. Specific forward and reverse primer sequences are as follows : TAp73fwd, 5-GCACCACGTTTGAGCACCTCT-3; TAp73rev, 5- GCAGATTGAACTGGGCCATGA-3; ÃŽÂ ²2Mfwd, 5-AGCTGTGCTCGCGCTACTCTC-3; ÃŽÂ ²2Mrev, 5-CACACGGCAGGCATACTCATC-3; PUMA fwd PUMArev NOXAfwd NOXArev. The conditions for all QRT-PCR reactions were as follows: 3 minutes at 94 °C followed by 40 seconds at 94 °C, 40 seconds at 60 °C, and 25 seconds at 72 °C for 40 cycles. All PCR products were confirmed by the presence of a single peak upon melting curve analysis and by gel electrophoresis. No-template (water) reaction mixtures and no-RT mixtures were performed on all samples as negative controls. All experiments were performed in duplicate. Protein isolation and Western blot analysis Protein lysates from cells were extracted in ice-cold lysis buffer (0.75% NP-40, 1 mM DTT, and protease inhibitors in PBS). Total protein (25 ÃŽÂ ¼g) was subjected to SDS-PAGE followed by immunoblotting with the following antibodies: p73 (diluted 1:1,000, Ab-2; CalBiochem); pS6K (diluted 1:1,000; Cell Signaling Technology); S6K (diluted 1:1,000, Ab9645; Abcam); and ÃŽÂ ²-tubulin (diluted 1:2,500, D-10; Santa Cruz Biotechnology). Lentiviral production and infection The shRNA lentiviral constructs were created by transferring the U6 promoter-shRNA cassette into a lentiviral backbone, and high-titre lentiviral stocks were generated by co-transfection with packaging vectors into 293T cells as described previously [3, 4, 13]. The shRNA target sequences for TAp73 was 5-GGATTCCAGCATGGACGTCTT-3. The TAp73 targeted sequence is found within p73 exon 3. Therefore, this shRNA does not target ΆNp73 [4]. RESULTS Selective sensitivity of basal-like breast cancer toward cisplatin To gain an overview of the selectivity of chemotherapeutic agents for basal-like breast cancer cells, we compared their antiproliferative properties in a panel of basal-like and luminal-like breast cancer cell lines which has been validated previously through gene profiling [15]. All cells were treated with increasing concentrations of cisplatin, paclitaxel or doxorubicin for 72 hours and growth measured using the MTT assay. Figure 1A and B summarizes the results from these breast cancer cell lines in which basal-like breast cancer cells demonstrated selective sensitivity to cisplatin. This selectivity was absence in cells treated with paclitaxel or doxorubicin suggesting that basal-like breast cancer cells confer selective sensitivity towards cisplatin (Figure 1A, B and Supplement Table 1). Small chemical library screening identify rapamycin as synergistic agents for cisplatin Although cisplatin is currently one of the most used agents in the treatment of cancer, the use of cisplatin is hampered by its side effects, especially neurotoxicity, nephrotoxicity and rug resistance [16]. Hence, the present study was aimed to identify chemosensitizers that could synergize the effects of cisplatin for treatment of basal-like breast cancers. To identify small molecules that enhance sensitivity of basal-like breast cancer cells to cisplatin, a cell-based high-throughput screen was performed using MDA-MB-468 cell line and a small chemical library consisting of 160 well validated specific inhibitors. The screens were done in 96-well plates to which compounds were added at 10  µM, followed by cisplatin at 1  µM. Cell viability was measured 72 hours later by MTT assay. Each plate included controls of untreated cells, cells treated with compounds or cisplatin only, and cells treated with a combination of both agents. Combinations of the treatments that induced growth inhibition higher than those of the same doses used alone (p The molecules identified in this screen includes rapamycin, [3-(Pyridin-2-yl)-4-(4-quinonyl)]-1H-pyrazole (LY364947), 4-(3-Chloroanilino)-6,7-dimethoxyquinazoline (AG1478), (E)3-[(4-Methylphenyl)sulfonyl]-2-propenenitrile (BAY11-7082), 2-(4-Morpholinyl)-8-phenyl-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one (LY294002) and 4-(4-Fluorophenyl)-2-(4-methylsulfinylphenyl)-5-(4-pyridyl)1H-imidazole (SB203580). Structures of these compounds and their growth inhibitory effects were shown in Figure 2. The molecular target of these compounds was listed in Table 1. The 6 compounds identified are specific inhibitors of the mTOR, TGF-à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¢, EGFR, NFà ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ «B PI3K/AKT and MAPK pathways which have been previously reported to be upregulated specifically in basal-like breast cancers [7, 17-20]. However, when tested for synergism with cisplatin at fixed concentration ratio, only rapamycin showed synergism when combined with cisplatin in MDA-MB-468 cells using the isobologram method that simulate the median-dose combination index (CI) [14]. The mean combination index at ED50, ED75, and ED90 of rapamycin (10:1 cisplatin:rapamycin) when combined with cisplatin was 0.52 à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ± 0.06, where combination index Specific synergistic effects of rapamycin and cisplatin in basal-like breast cancer cells Next, we sought to investigate if combination of cisplatin with rapamycin exhibit specific synergism in basal-like breast cancers by comparing their effects in a panel of breast cancer cell lines. The antiproliferative effect of treatment was evaluated using MTT assays and drug interaction was assessed by the isobologram method as described in the previous section. The results demonstrated that combination of rapamysin and cisplatin exhibited selective synergistic effects only in the basal-like MDA-MB-468, MDA-MB-231 and HCC1937 cells, but not in the luminal-like T47D or MCF-7 cells (Figure 3A and Table 2). To ensure that the lack of synergistic effects of rapamycin and cisplatin observed in luminal-like cells is not due the general lack of sensitivity of luminal-like cells to cisplatin per se, we compared the apoptotic effects of cisplatin and rapamycin alone or in combination in MDA-MB-231 and T47D cells using an equal potent dose of cisplatin (IC50 dose). Both cell lines exhibited similar amount of apoptosis following treatment with their respective IC50 dose of cisplatin. Interestingly, when both cell lines were treated with combination of cisplatin and rapamycin, synergistic effects were evidenced only in MDA-MB-231 cells but not in T47D cells. The potentiation effects of rapamycin observed in MDA-MB-231 cells were further enhanced by sequential treatment with rapamycin for 6 hours followed by cisplatin (data not shown). These results demonstrated that rapamycin is capable of sensitizing basal-like breast cancer cells to cisplatin, suggesting that the synergistic effects of rapamyc in and cisplatin may be mediated through a common pathway. Rapamycin sensitizes basal-like cells to cisplatin through p73 up regulation Previous study has shown that inhibition of mTOR by rapamycin up regulate p73 in breast cancer cells [21]. We and others have also demonstrated that p73 is overexpressed in a subset of triple-negative breast tumors and that p73 is required for cisplatin sensitivity in basal-like breast cancer cells [4]. On the basis of these findings, we ask if the synergistic effects of rapamycin and cisplatin combination could be explained by the activation of the p73 pathway. To test this notion, MDA-MB-231 cells were treated with 10  µM of cisplatin and 100 nM rapamycin alone or in combination for 48 hours. mTOR inhibition was confirmed using phospho-S6K as a marker of mTOR activity. Quantitation of the mRNA and protein expression of the TAp73 was performed using qPCR and immunoblotting, respectively. The results showed that treatment of rapamycin or cisplatin alone did not change the expression of TAp73 mRNA but induced significant up regulation of TAp73 protein expression in MDA-MB-231 cells (Figure 4A and B). Next, we evaluated the expression of the two potent pro-apoptotic BH3 only proteins, PUMA and NOXA, which has been identified as specific p73 target genes, using qPCR [22, 23]. As expected, treatment of cells with cisplatin for 48 hours induced mRNA expression of PUMA and NOXA in both MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468 cells. Significant induction of PUMA and NOXA were also observed in MDA-MB-231 cells but not in MDA-MB-468 cells following treatment with rapamycin alone. When cells were treated with combination of cisplatin and rapamycin, the expression of PUMA and NOXA was further enhanced, corroborated with the massive induction of apoptosis as shown in Figure 3B. Together, these results suggest that rapamycin synergize cisplatin activity in basal-like cells through induction of p73 pathway. p73 is required for the synergistic effects of rapamycin and cisplatin in basal-like breast cancer cells To further evaluate whether p73 is the effector of the synergistic effects of rapamycin and cisplatin in basal-like breast cancer cells, we generated a series of isogenic cell lines that have been depleted for TAp73 by stably expressing a shRNA species that target specifically human TAp73. Unlike MDA-MB-231 cells which express one predominant TAp73 isoform (TAp73à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¢) isoform, MDA-MB-468 cells express high levels of two p73 isoforms, TAp73à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¡ and TAp73à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¢ [21]. Figure 5A showed efficient knock-down of TAp73 isoforms in MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468 cells. As expected, treatment of cisplatin alone induced significant amount of apoptosis in MDA-MB-468 vector control cells. This apoptotic effects were further enhanced in the presence of rapamycin, consistent with our previous observations (Figure 3B). In stark contrast, depletion of TAp73 not only reduced the amount of apoptosis following treatment of cisplatin alone but also completely abrogated the synergistic effects of rapamycin (Figure). This result is further supported by the isobologram analysis which showed a lack of synergism of rapamycin-cisplatin treatment in the TAp73 depleted cells. Together, these results suggest that TAp73 is required for the synergistic effects of rapamycin and cisplatin in basal-like breast cancers. DISCUSSION By gene profiling, breast cancers can be classified into 5 molecularly distinct subtypes: luminal A, luminal B, HER2+, basal-like and normal breast cancers. The basal-like subtype, which represents 15-20% of breast cancers, has been subjected to extensive investigation in recent years due to its association with poor patient survival [1, 2, 20, 24]. Unlike many breast cancers, patients diagnosed with basal-like breast cancers are not eligible for molecular targeted therapy that target ER (e.g. tamoxifen, aromatase inhibitors) or HER2 (e.g. Herceptin) as they do not express the estrogen receptor (ER) or progesterone receptor (PR), nor do they have amplified HER2 [1, 24]. The treatment option therefore is relied on aggressive conventional chemotherapies which have limited efficacy, many side effects and often high rate of relapse. Hence, development of an effective therapeutic strategy remains an important goal in the management of basal-like breast cancer. Several lines of evidence has suggested a link between basal-like breast cancers and BRCA1 deficiency [7, 25, 26]. In most cases, the clinical features and outcomes for women with sporadic basal-like breast cancers are broadly similar to those with BRCA1-related cancers including high tendency of developing high grade, high mitotic index tumors, shorter time of relapse, similar pattern of metastatic spread and cytogenetic changes associated with frequent loss of X-chromosome inactivation [7, 27-32]. The majority of BRCA1-associated cancers are also triple-negative (ER, PR and HER2 negative), express basal cytokeratins and other markers commonly seen in basal-like breast cancers (e.g. p53, P-cadherin and EGFR) [7]. Gene expression profiling also demonstrated that BRCA1-associated cancers segregate strongly with basal-like breast cancers [2, 29, 33, 34]. Although BRCA1 somatic gene mutations are uncommon in sporadic basal-like cancers, these tumors have been shown to have a dysfunction al BRCA1 pathway due to BRCA1 gene promoter methylation and/or BRCA1 pathway transcriptional inactivation [7, 25, 26]. The fundamental biological similarities between hereditary BRCA1-related breast cancers and basal-like cancers suggest that strategies targeting the dysfunctional BRCA1 pathway may be effective in basal-like breast cancers. There is increasing evidence that the DNA repair defects characteristic of BRCA1 related cancers, especially defective homologous recombination, confer sensitivity to certain systemic agents, such as platinum-based chemotherapy and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors [34-38]. Indeed, recent clinical studies revealed that sporadic basal-like cancers responded to platinum-based chemotherapy and were associated with a high rate of complete pathologic response [9, 11, 38]. Consistent with the clinical data, our in vitro study also reveals that basal-like breast cancer cells confer specific sensitivity to cisplatin as compared to other chemotherapeutic agents (e.g. doxorubicin or paclitaxel) (Figure 1), further support research into the utility of platinum-ba sed agents in basal-like breast cancers. Given the high specificity and response rate of basal-like breast cancers toward platinum-based therapy, our focus is to maximize the benefits associated with this therapy through drug combination strategies. Using a small chemical library consisted of 160 well-validated and specific inhibitors that target the human kinome, we have identified 6 compounds that significantly potentiate the antiproliferative effects of cisplatin in basal-like breast cancer cells. These compounds include rapamycin, LY364947, AG1478, BAY11-7082, LY294002 and SB203580 which targets the mTOR, TGFà ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¢RI, NFà ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ «B, PI3K/AKT and MAPK pathway respectively. Of note, these pathways have been reported previously to be over activated in basal-like breast cancers [7, 17, 18, 20]. To further investigate the mode of interaction between these compounds and cisplatin, we performed a drug combination study using the isobologram approach as described previously (Ref). Out of the 6 compounds identified, rapamycin showed the strongest synergistic effects with cisplatin while others (LY364947, AG 1478, BAY11-7082, LY294002 and SB203580) showed mainly additive effects. This result is consistent with other studies which show that inhibition of mTOR by RNAi or small molecules (e.g. rapamycin, CCI-779, RAD001) enhances cisplatin chemosensitivity in ovarian [39-41], endometrial [42], head and neck [43, 44], lung [45], skin [46, 47] and liver [48] cancers. We next compared the synergistic effects of rapamycin in combination with cisplatin in a panel of luminal-like and basal-like breast cancer cell lines that has been previously validated by gene profiling [15]. Intriguingly, the synergistic effects were observed only in MDA-MB-468, MDA-MB-231 and HCC1937 basal-like cells, but not in MCF-7 or T47D luminal-like cells. Several models have been proposed to explain the synergistic effects of rapamycin and cisplatin in cancer cells. Beuvnk et al., 2005 showed that RAD001 (Everolimus), a rapamycin derivative, dramatically enhances cisplatin-induced apoptosis in wild-type p53 but not mutant p53 tumor cells by inhibiting p53-induced p21 expression [49]. Wangpaichitr et al., 2008 demonstrated that inhibition of mTOR by CCI-779 decreased levels of the anti-apoptotic proteins, BCL2/BCLxL, and increasing apoptosis in lung cancer cells that is resistance to cisplatin [50]. Although these models provide important evidence for mTOR inhibition and cisplatin synergism in cancer cells, it fails to explain the specific synergism we observed in basal-like breast cancer cells, as the basal-like cells that we tested are p53 mutated and do not express high level of BCL2/BCLxL (data not shown). This led us to postulate that a common signal transduction pathway inhibited by rapamycin may be an important component that sy nergizes cisplatin sensitivity in basal-like cells. Since p73 has been reported to mediate cisplatin sensitivity in a subset of triple-negative breast cancer cells [4] and that inhibition of mTOR by rapamycin or RNAi lead to upregulation of p73 [21], we postulated that activation of the p73 pathways might be important for the synergistic effects of rapamycin. To test the role of p73 in rapamycin and cisplatin synergism, we first evaluated the expression of p73 mRNA and protein levels following treatment with cisplatin or rapamycin alone or in combination in MDA-MB-231 cells. Consistent with previous studies, treatment of cells with cisplatin or rapamycin alone induces p73 protein expression followed by transcriptional activation of the 2 potent pro-apoptotic p73 target genes, PUMA and NOXA. When MDA-MB-231 cells were co-treated with rapamycin and cisplatin, the elevation of p73 and its pro-apoptotic target genes were synergistically enhanced. The observed changes in p73 protein in MDA-MB-231 cells, however, were not due to parallel changes in p73 RNA levels, suggesting that inhibition of mTOR might lead to inactivation of a yet unknown p73 specific protein degradation pathway. To validate that the rapamycin and cisplatin synergism is mediated by p73, we generated isogenic MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468 cells that were depleted for p73 using a lentiviral-shRNA that target specifically the transactivating isoform of p73 (TAp73). Indeed, depletion of TAp73 in MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468 cells completely abrogated the synergistic effects of rapamycin suggesting that the synergism between rapamycin and cisplatin required p73 function. Although the combination of cisplatin and rapamycin has not been previously investigated in clinical study, it is worth noting that a phase II neo-adjuvant clinical trial of cisplatin and RAD001 (Everolimus), in patients with triple-negative breast cancers has recently open for recruitment (ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT00930930), and will be able to address the potential of cisplatin and mTOR inhibitors combination therapy directly. It would be equally intriguing to determine the role of p73 related pathway as potential biomarkers that might predict response to treatment given the pivotal role of p73 in the synergistic effects of mTOR inhibition and cisplatin sensitivity. In conclusion, combination of mTOR inhibitors and cisplatin may be a useful therapeutic strategy in basal-like breast cancers.

Same Day Voter Registration :: essays research papers

Same day voter registration, as the name implies, is the process of registering to vote on the day elections are held. Because of the way this would and does affect the results of elections, it is a â€Å"hot topic† among many in the government.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Proponents of the issue use the argument that same day voter registration would increase voter turnout, which in fact, it has been proven to do. The three states that have currently adopted same day registration, Maine, Minnesota, and Wisconsin, have seen voter turnout increase by about 5%. This is due to the reduction in the cost of voting to the voter. Pre- registration requires time and effort, something so many Americans seem unwilling to spend. By allowing same day registration, the voter no longer has to have the foresight to register, nor take the time to find the registration place and then actually send in the registration card.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Same day registration also places less of a premium on permanent residence. Many lower class Americans who have no stable residence, along with those people who just move a lot, would find same day registration very convenient, and it might be the difference as to weather or not they vote.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Despite the many up-sides to same day registration, many feel it would be detrimental to the voting process. Along with same day registration comes a higher possibility of voting fraud. It would be easier for a voter to vote multiple times at different precincts.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Republicans are more likely to be against same day registration. They feel as if the people who take advantage of it, those who didn’t get around to registering, would probably not be republicans. Many, republican or not, feel as if same day registration would also lead to â€Å"snap-decision† voting, voting for a cartoon character or a wrestler, or, god forbid, a third party candidate. Many opposed to same day registration feel that the people who are voting now without it are the people that need to be voting, and we don’t need to involve anyone else.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Despite my initial feeling of indifference, I am for same day voter registration. I think that the more people that get involved and cast a vote, the more the elected official can properly represent those he or she serves.

The French Revolution :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The year 1789 brought France the biggest period of change she had or would ever experience. During the next ten year period, now known as the French Revolution, saw the overturn of and murder of Louis XVI, a time of chaos and much bloodshed, and the establishment of a new government that would change France forever. Many aristocrats were murdered during the Reign of Terror, and many leaders of the revolution themselves were murdered as the people continued to revolt. A new constitution was written and then another immediately followed as the Declaration of the Rights Man was proclaimed throughout the land. This time period ended when Napoleon Bonaparte became the first consul of France. France Before the Revolution   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Before the revolution, France was divided into three classes, or estates as they were called. The first two, the nobility and the clergy, received many privileges that the other classes did not. The third class was made up of merchants, professional people, the workers, and the peasants. This caused a major division between the classes and the third class was becoming very upset with the way they were being treated.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At this point in French history, the kings of France had believed that they were only responsible to God for the way they chose to rule. However, if they wanted to receive advice, they could ask a legislative body called the Estates General that contained representatives from all three classes. The problem was that the kings were not required to do this and had not done so since 1614.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The royal taxes were very heavy which drained all the money from the third class and was then used by the king to live luxuriously. The nobles also drained all of the money from their estates so that they could continue to live a rich lifestyle. Causes of the Revolution The Philosophers. The philosophers were brilliant men who wanted to reorganize the government and society on a basis of reason. They’re were some who thought that the English system of government was better while one man’s writings, Jean Jacques Rousseau, even influenced the writers of the United States Constitution. Louis XVI Becomes King. Louis XVI became king when he was after his grandfather Louis XV died. The young king meant well for his country, but was inexperienced, immature, and not very intelligent in his dealings with government.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When Louis XVI came to the throne, there were some big problems in France, the main problem being money.

History of Western Society Ch 13 Outline

History of Western Society Sixth Edition Chapter 13 Outline I. The Evolution of the Italian Renaissance A. Economic growth laid the material basis 1. Cultural achievements of the 14th to 16th centuries 2. Northern Italian cities led the way 3. Advances in ship construction greatly increased the volume of goods that could be transported; improvements in the mechanics of sailing accelerated speed 4. Italian renaissance appeared in Florence 5. The economic foundations of Florence was so strong that even severe crisis could not destroy the city 6.Driving enterprise, technical know-how, and competitive spirit saw Florence through the difficult economic period of the late 14th century B. Communes and Republics 1. The Northern Italian cities were communes, sworn associations 2. Groups tied by blood, economic interests, and social connections 3. A properly qualification, years of residence within the city, and social connections 4. In the 15th century, political power and elite culture enter ed on the princely courts of despots and oligarchs C. The Balance of Power Among the Italian City States 1. Passionate attachment to their individual city states . The kingdom of Naples had long been disputed by the Aragonese and by the French. 3. In the peace treaty signed at Lodi in 1454, Venice received territories in return for recognizing Sforza’s right to the duchy 4. Renaissance Italians invented the machinery of modern diplomacy 5. In a number of fiery sermons between 1491 and 1494, Savonarola attacked what he considered the paganism and moral vice of the city 6. The invasion of Italy in 1494 by the French king Charles VIII 7. In 1508 his cousin and heir, Louis XII, formed the league of Cambrai II. Intellectual Hallmarks of the RenaissanceA. The Renaissance was characterized by self-conscious awareness among the 14th and 15th century Italians 1. Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374) considered the first two centuries of the Roman Empire to represent the peak in the developme nts of human civilization 2. The Renaissance manifested itself in a new attitude toward men, women, and the world B. Individualism 1. Middle Ages had seen the appearance of remarkable individuals 2. Large literature with the nature of individuality emerged, represented the flowering of distinctly Renaissance individualism C. Humanism 1.Humanism emphasized human beings, their achievements, interests, and capabilities 2. Renaissance humanists approached the classics differently D. Secular Spirit 1. Secularism involves a basic concern with the material world instead of with the eternal world of spirit 2. Humanist Lorenzo Valla (1406-1457) defends the pleasures of the senses as the highest good 3. Papal interests, which were far removed from spiritual concerns, fostered, rather than discouraged, the new worldly attitude III. Art and the Artist A. The subject matter of art through the early 15th century as in the Middle Agrs, remained overwhelmingly religious 1.In the 14th and 15th centu ries, a large, intricately carved wooden bed, a chest, and perhaps a bench served as its sole decorations 2. Florentine Masaccio (1401-1428) inspired a new style, realism, the new international style B. The Status of the Artist 1. The Renaissance artist was considered a free intellectual worker 2. The social status of the artist of genius was immortally secured IV. Social Change A. The Renaissance changed many aspects of Italian, and subsequently European, society 1. Renaissance culture witnessed a shift in the status and experience of women B. Education and Political Thought . One of the central preoccupations of the humanists was education and moral behavior 2. In the 16th and 17th centuries, The Courtier was widely read 3. No Renaissance book on any topic, however, has been more widely read and studied in all centuries since its publication (1513) C. The Printed Word 1. By the middle of the 15th century, paper was no problem 2. Gutenberg’s Bible of 1456, movable type had b rought about radical changes 3. Since books and other printed materials were read aloud to illiterate listeners, print bridged the gap between written and oral cultures D. Clocks . The English word quantification was first used in 1840 2. Mechanical clocks, usually installed on the cathedial or town church, were in general use in Germany by the 1330’s, in England by the 1370’s, and in France by the 1380’s 3. The status of upper-class women declined, in terms of the kind of work they performed 4. Laura Cereta (1469-1499) illustrates the successes and failures od educated Renaissance women 5. Women, of course, continued to perform economic functions 6. In the years 1338- 1358, rape was not considered a serious crime against either the victim or society 7.In the 11th century, William the Conqueror had decreed that rapists be castrated E. Gender and Culture 1. The term homosexuality was coined only in 1892 2. On April 17th, 1432, the Florentine government set up a s pecial magistracy, the Office of the Night F. Blacks 1. The beginning in the 15th century, sizable numbers of black slaves entered Europe 2. In 1491 Isabella of Este, duchess of Mantua, instructed her agent to secure a black girl between four and eight years old V. The Renaissance in the North A. Last quarter of the 15th century, Italian Renaissance thoughts inspired northern Europe 1.There More found the time to write Utopia (1516), which presents a revolutionary view of society. 2. Francois Rabelais (1490? -1553) possess a distinctly secular flavor and have attracted broad readership among the literate public 3. Many of Bosch’s paintings reflect the confusion, and anguish often associated with the end of the Middle Ages VI. Politics and the State in the Renaissance (CA 1450-1521) A. Louis XI, Henry VII, and Ferdinand and Isabella in Spain had been labeled as â€Å"new monarchs† B. France 1. In 1438 Charles published the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges 2.In 1516 the new treaty, the Concordat of Bologna, approved the pope’s right to receive the first year’s income of new bishops and abbots C. England 1. Between 1455 and 1471, adherents of the ducal houses of York and Lancaster waged civil war, the Wars of Roses 2. The council dealt with real or potential aristocratic threats through a judicial offshoot, the court of Star Chamber D. Spain 1. The centuries-long Reconquista- the wars of the northern Christian kingdoms to control the entire peninsula 2. In the administration of Castile, â€Å"New Christians† held the royal secretary ship